Cybercrime

cybercrime is a form of crime where the Internet or computers are used as a medium to commit crime. Issues surrounding this type of crime have become high-profile, particularly those surrounding hacking, copyright infringement, child pornography, and child grooming. There are also problems of privacy when confidential information is lost or intercepted, lawfully or otherwise.

cybercrime encompass a broad range of potentially illegal activities. Generally, however, it may be divided into one of two types of categories: (1) crimes that target computer networks or devices directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer network or device.

Examples of crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices would include:

Malware (malicious code) Denial-of-service attacks Computer viruses Examples of crimes that merely use computer networks or devices would include:

Cyber stalking
Fraud and identity theft
Phishing scams
Information warfare
A common example is when a person starts to steal information from sites, or cause damage to, a computer or computer network. This can be entirely virtual in that the information only exists in digital form, and the damage, while real, has no physical consequence other than the machine ceases to function. In some legal systems, intangible property cannot be stolen and the damage must be visible, e.g. as resulting from a blow from a hammer. Where human-centric terminology is used for crimes relying on natural language skills and innate gullibility, definitions have to be modified to ensure that fraudulent behavior remains criminal no matter how it is committed.

A computer can be a source of evidence. Even though the computer is not directly used for criminal purposes, it is an excellent device for record keeping, particularly given the power to encrypt the data. If this evidence can be obtained and decrypted, it can be of great value to criminal investigators.

Typology
Spam
Spam, or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial purposes, is unlawful to varying degrees. As applied to email, specific anti-spam laws are relatively new, however limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed in some forms for some time.[1]

Fraud
Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss.[citation needed] In this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:

altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized processes;
altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to conceal unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect; altering or deleting stored data; altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages, or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes. This requires real programming skills and is not common. Other forms of fraud may be facilitated using computer systems, including bank fraud, identity theft, extortion, and theft of classified information.
A variety of Internet scams target consumers direct.

Obscene or offensive contentThe content of websites and other electronic communications may be distasteful, obscene or offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances these communications may be illegal.
Many[quantify] jurisdictions place limits on certain speech and ban racist, blasphemous, politically subversive, libelous or slanderous, seditious, or inflammatory material that tends to incite hate crimes.
The extent to which these communications are unlawful varies greatly between countries, and even within nations. It is a sensitive area in which the courts can become involved in arbitrating between groups with entrenched beliefs.
One area of Internet pornography that has been the target of the strongest efforts at curtailment is child pornography.

HarassmentWhereas content may be offensive in a non-specific way, harassment directs obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race, religion, nationality, sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties (see cyber bullying, cyber stalking, harassment by computer, hate crime, Online predator, and stalking). Any comment that may be found derogatory or offensive is considered harassment.

Drug traffickingDrug traffickers are increasingly taking advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through encrypted e-mail and other Internet Technology. Some drug traffickers arrange deals at internet cafes, use courier Web sites to track illegal packages of pills, and swap recipes for amphetamines in restricted-access chat rooms.
The rise in Internet drug trades could also be attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication. These virtual exchanges allow more intimidated individuals to more comfortably purchase illegal drugs. The sketchy effects that are often associated with drug trades are severely minimized and the filtering process that comes with physical interaction fades away. Furthermore, traditional drug recipes were carefully kept secrets. But with modern computer technology, this information is now being made available to anyone with computer access.

CyberterrorismGovernment officials and Information Technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems and server scans since early 2001. But there is a growing concern among federal officials[who?] that such intrusions are part of an organized effort by cyberterrorists, foreign intelligence services, or other groups to map potential security holes in critical systems. A cyberterrorist is someone who intimidates or coerces a government or organization to advance his or her political or social objectives by launching computer-based attack against computers, network, and the information stored on them.
Cyberterrorism in general, can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources (Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. At worst, cyberterrorists may use the Internet or computer resources to carry out an actual attack. As well there are also hacking activities directed towards individuals, families, organised by groups within networks, tending to cause fear among people, demonstrate power, collecting information relevant for ruining peoples' lives, robberies, blackmailing etc.

Documented casesThe Yahoo! website was attacked at 10:30 PST on Monday, 7 February 2000. The attack, started by MafiaBoy, lasted for three hours. Yahoo was pinged at the rate of one gigabyte/second. On 3 August 2000, Canadian federal prosecutors charged MafiaBoy with 54 counts of illegal access to computers, plus a total of ten counts of mischief to data for his attacks on Amazon.com, eBay, Dell Computer, Outlaw.net, and Yahoo. MafiaBoy had also attacked other websites, but prosecutors decided that a total of 66 counts was enough. MafiaBoy pleaded not guilty. About fifty computers at Stanford University, and also computers at the University of California at Santa Barbara, were amongst the zombie computers sending pings in DDoS attacks. In 26 March 1999, the Melissa worm infected a document on a victim's computer, then automatically sent that document and copy of the virus via e-mail to other people. Russian Business Network (RBN) was registered as an internet site in 2006. Initially, much of its activity was legitimate. But apparently the founders soon discovered that it was more profitable to host illegitimate activities and started hiring its services to criminals. The RBN has been described by VeriSign as "the baddest of the bad". It offers web hosting services and internet access to all kinds of criminal and objectionable activities, with individual activities earning up to $150 million in one year. It specialized in and in some cases monopolized personal identity theft for resale. It is the originator of MPack and an alleged operator of the Storm botnet. [edit] External linksIndiana University Knowledge Base,http://www.kb.iu.edu/data/afvn.html Johanna Granville “Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions,” Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 49, no. 1. (Winter 2003), pp. 102–109. Cyber Crime Ciberdelincuencia.Org Cybercrime legislation and policy in Latin-America (in Spanish) High Technology Crime Investigation Association Cybercrime - High Tech crime JISC Legal Information Service A Guide to Computer Crime Practitioner.Com Criminal Justice Resources - Cybercrime Cybercrime NYLS Cybertelecom :: Crime European Convention on Cybercrime Computer Crime Research Center - Daily news about computer crime, Internet fraud and cyber terrorism CyberCrime Asia Research Center - Information about computer crime, Internet fraud and cyberterrorism in Asia Cyber Crime Law - News and commentary on preventing, detecting, and prosecuting computer crimes Annual e-Crime Conference Serving Europe & International corporations E-crime and computer evidence conference (first held in 2005 - now an annual event) - The Legal Framework - Unauthorized Access to Computer Systems - Cybercrime Law - Computer Crimes, Ronald B. Standler [edit] Government resourcesUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNODC Law enforcement officers trained to tackle cybercrime Cybercrime.gov US Department of Justice CCIPS Australian High Tech Crime Centre U.S. Department of Justice National Institute of Justice Electronic Crime Program US CERT United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) FBI Cyber Investigations Home Page US Secret Service Computer Fraud On Guard OnGuardOnline.gov provides practical tips from the federal government and the technology industry to help you be on guard against Internet fraud, secure your computer, and protect your personal information. http://www.cybercrime.gov - U.S. Department of Justice cybercrime web site ID Theft one-stop national resource to learn about the crime of identity theft FindLaw Computer Crime RCMP Computer Crime Prevention Royal Canadian Mounted Police Australian Computer Abuse Research Bureau (ACARB) introduction to computer abuse concepts [edit] See alsoComputer trespass Cyber bullying Cyber terrorism Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) INTERPOL Internet homicide Internet stalking Internet suicide Online predator Organized crime Police National E-Crime Unit United States Secret Service White collar crime ITU Global Cybersecurity Agenda List of convicted computer criminals [edit] ReferencesBalkin, J., Grimmelmann, J., Katz, E., Kozlovski, N., Wagman, S. & Zarsky, T. (2006) (eds) Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment, New York University Press, New York.
Brenner, S. (2007) Law in an Era of Smart Technology, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Csonka P. (2000) Internet Crime; the Draft council of Europe convention on cyber-crime: A response to the challenge of crime in the age of the internet? Computer Law & Security Report Vol.16 no.5.
Fafinski, S. (2009) Computer Misuse: Response, regulation and the law Cullompton: Willan
Grabosky, P. (2006) Electronic Crime, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
McQuade, S. (2006) Understanding and Managing Cybercrime, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
McQuade, S. (ed) (2009) The Encyclopedia of Cybercrime, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Parker D (1983) Fighting Computer Crime, U.S.: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Pattavina, A. (ed) Information Technology and the Criminal Justice System, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Paul Taylor (in ENGLISH). Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime (November 3, 1999 ed.). Routledge; 1 edition. pp. 200. ISBN 0415180724. Walden, I. (2007) Computer Crimes and Digital Investigations, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wall, D.S. (2007) Cybercrimes: The transformation of crime in the information age, Cambridge: Polity.
Williams, M. (2006) Virtually Criminal: Crime, Deviance and Regulation Online, Routledge, London.
Yar, M. (2006) Cybercrime and Society, London: Sage.

iSCSI(Internet Small Computer System Interface)

In computing, iSCSI (pronounced /аɪsˈkʌzi/ or eye-scuzzy), is an Internet Protocol (IP)-based storage networking standard for linking data storage facilities. By carrying SCSI commands over IP networks, iSCSI is used to facilitate data transfers over intranets and to manage storage over long distances. iSCSI can be used to transmit data over local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), or the Internet and can enable location-independent data storage and retrieval. The protocol allows clients (called initiators) to send SCSI commands (CDBs) to SCSI storage devices (targets) on remote servers. It is a popular storage area network (SAN) protocol, allowing organizations to consolidate storage into data center storage arrays while providing hosts (such as database and web servers) with the illusion of locally-attached disks. Unlike traditional Fibre Channel, which requires special-purpose cabling, iSCSI can be run over long distances using existing network infrastructure.
FunctionalityiSCSI uses TCP/IP (typically TCP ports 860 and 3260). In essence, iSCSI simply allows two hosts to negotiate and then exchange SCSI commands using IP networks. By doing this iSCSI takes a popular high-performance local storage bus and emulates it over wide-area networks, creating a storage area network (SAN). Unlike some SAN protocols, iSCSI requires no dedicated cabling; it can be run over existing switching and IP infrastructure. However, the performance of an iSCSI SAN deployment can be severely degraded if not operated on a dedicated network or subnet (LAN or VLAN). As a result, iSCSI is often seen as a low-cost alternative to Fibre Channel, which requires dedicated infrastructure. However, Fiber Channel over Ethernet or FCoE does not require dedicated infrastructure.
Although iSCSI can communicate with arbitrary types of SCSI devices, system administrators almost always use it to allow server computers (such as database servers) to access disk volumes on storage arrays. iSCSI SANs often have one of two objectives:
Storage consolidation Organizations move disparate storage resources from servers around their network to central locations, often in data centers; this allows for more efficiency in the allocation of storage. In a SAN environment, a server can be allocated a new disk volume without any change to hardware or cabling. Disaster recovery Organizations mirror storage resources from one data center to a remote data center, which can serve as a hot standby in the event of a prolonged outage. In particular, iSCSI SANs allow entire disk arrays to be migrated across a WAN with minimal configuration changes, in effect making storage "routable" in the same manner as network traffic. Network bootingFor general data storage on an already-running computer, any type of generic network interface may be used to access iSCSI devices. However, a generic consumer-grade network interface is not able to boot a diskless computer from a remote iSCSI data source. Instead it is commonplace for a server to load its initial operating system from a small local RAID mirror or flash drive boot device, and then use iSCSI for data storage once booting from the local device has finished.
A separate DHCP server may be configured to assist interfaces equipped with network boot capability to be able to boot over iSCSI. In this case the network interface looks for a DHCP server offering a PXE or bootp boot image. This is used to kick off the iSCSI remote boot process, using the booting network interface's MAC address to direct the computer to the correct iSCSI boot target.
Specialized iSCSI interfaces are available with built-in BIOS functionality that allows the interface to be preassigned to an iSCSI target, and be able to boot from it without additional help from a boot server, thereby reducing the network configuration complexity.
Concepts[edit] InitiatorFurther information: SCSI initiatorAn initiator functions as an iSCSI client. An initiator typically serves the same purpose to a computer as a SCSI bus adapter would, except that instead of physically cabling SCSI devices (like hard drives and tape changers), an iSCSI initiator sends SCSI commands over an IP network. An initiator falls into two broad types:
Software initiator A software initiator uses code to implement iSCSI. Typically, this happens in a kernel-resident device driver that uses the existing network card (NIC) and network stack to emulate SCSI devices for a computer by speaking the iSCSI protocol. Software initiators are available for most mainstream operating systems, and this type is the most common mode of deploying iSCSI on computers. Hardware initiator A hardware initiator uses dedicated hardware, typically in combination with software (firmware) running on that hardware, to implement iSCSI. A hardware initiator mitigates the overhead of iSCSI and TCP processing and Ethernet interrupts, and therefore may improve the performance of servers that use iSCSI. Host Bus AdapterAn iSCSI host bus adapter (more commonly, HBA) implements a hardware initiator. A typical HBA is packaged as a combination of a Gigabit (or 10 Gigabit) Ethernet NIC, some kind of TCP/IP offload engine (TOE) technology and a SCSI bus adapter, which is how it appears to the operating system.
An iSCSI HBA can include PCI option ROM to allow booting from an iSCSI target.
TCP Offload EngineMain article: TCP Offload EngineA TCP Offload Engine, or "TOE Card", offers an alternative to a full iSCSI HBA. A TOE "offloads" the TCP/IP operations for this particular network interface from the host processor, freeing up CPU cycles for the main host applications. When a TOE is used rather than an HBA, the host processor still has to perform the processing of the iSCSI protocol layer itself, but the CPU overhead for that task is low.
iSCSI HBAs or TOEs are used when the additional performance enhancement justifies the additional expense of using an HBA for iSCSI, rather than using a software-based iSCSI client (initiator).
TargetFurther information: SCSI targetiSCSI specification refers to a storage resource located on an iSCSI server (more generally, one of potentially many instances of iSCSI storage nodes running on that server) as a target. An iSCSI target usually represents hard disk storage that works over the IP or Ethernet networks. "iSCSI target" should not be confused with the term "iSCSI" as the latter is a protocol and not a storage server instance.
As with initiators, software to provide an iSCSI target is available for most mainstream operating systems. Common deployment scenarios for an iSCSI target include:
Storage arrayIn a data center or enterprise environment, an iSCSI target often resides in a large storage array, such as a NetApp filer or an EMC NS-series computer appliance. A storage array usually provides distinct iSCSI targets for numerous clients.[1]
Software targetSome mainstream server operating systems (like FreeBSD, Linux, Solaris) along with some specific-purpose operating systems (like Openfiler or FreeNAS or Windows Storage Server or Windows Unified Data Storage Server) can provide free iSCSI Target functionality implemented in software. Windows Storage Server components are not intended to be used for production environments in such a case.
Logical Unit NumberMain article: Logical Unit NumberIn SCSI terminology, LUN stands for logical unit number. A LUN represents an individually addressable (logical) SCSI device that is part of a physical SCSI device (target). In an iSCSI environment, LUNs are essentially numbered disk drives. An initiator negotiates with a target to establish connectivity to a LUN; the result is an iSCSI connection that emulates a connection to a SCSI hard disk. Initiators treat iSCSI LUNs the same way as they would a raw SCSI or IDE hard drive; for instance, rather than mounting remote directories as would be done in NFS or CIFS environments, iSCSI systems format and directly manage filesystems on iSCSI LUNs.
In enterprise deployments, LUNs usually represent slices of large RAID disk arrays, often allocated one per client. iSCSI imposes no rules or restrictions on multiple computers sharing individual LUNs; it leaves shared access to a single underlying filesystem as a task for the operating system.
AddressingSpecial names refer to both iSCSI initiators and targets. iSCSI provides three name-formats:
iSCSI Qualified Name (IQN) Format: iqn.yyyy-mm.{reversed domain name} (e.g. iqn.2001-04.com.acme:storage.tape.sys1.xyz) (Note: there is an optional colon with arbitrary text afterwards. This text is there to help better organize or label resources.) Extended Unique Identifier (EUI) Format: eui.{EUI-64 bit address} (e.g. eui.02004567A425678D) T11 Network Address Authority (NAA) Format: naa.{NAA 64 or 128 bit identifier} (e.g. naa.52004567BA64678D) IQN format addresses occur most commonly. They are qualified by a date (yyyy-mm) because domain names can expire or be acquired by another entity.
The IEEE Registration authority provides EUI in accordance with the EUI-64 standard. NAA is part OUI which is provided by the IEEE Registration Authority. NAA name formats were added to iSCSI in RFC 3980, to provide compatibility with naming conventions used in Fibre Channel and Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) storage technologies.
Usually an iSCSI participant can be defined by three or four fields:
Hostname or IP Address (e.g., "iscsi.example.com") Port Number (e.g., 3260) iSCSI Name (e.g., the IQN "iqn.2003-01.com.ibm:00.fcd0ab21.shark128") An optional CHAP Secret (e.g., "secretsarefun") [edit] iSNSMain article: Internet Storage Name ServiceiSCSI initiators can locate appropriate storage resources using the Internet Storage Name Service (iSNS) protocol. In theory, iSNS provides iSCSI SANs with the same management model as dedicated Fibre Channel SANs. In practice, administrators can satisfy many deployment goals for iSCSI without using iSNS.
Security[edit] AuthenticationiSCSI initiators and targets prove their identity to each other using the CHAP protocol, which includes a mechanism to prevent cleartext passwords from appearing on the wire. By itself, the CHAP protocol is vulnerable to dictionary attacks, spoofing, or reflection attacks. If followed carefully, the rules for using CHAP within iSCSI prevent most of these attacks.[2]
Additionally, as with all IP-based protocols, IPsec can operate at the network layer. The iSCSI negotiation protocol is designed to accommodate other authentication schemes, though interoperability issues limit their deployment.
Logical network isolationTo ensure that only valid initiators connect to storage arrays, administrators most commonly run iSCSI only over logically-isolated backchannel networks. In this deployment architecture, only the management ports of storage arrays are exposed to the general-purpose internal network, and the iSCSI protocol itself is run over dedicated network segments or virtual LANs (VLAN). This mitigates authentication concerns; unauthorized users aren't physically provisioned for iSCSI, and thus can't talk to storage arrays. However, it also creates a transitive trust problem, in that a single compromised host with an iSCSI disk can be used to attack storage resources for other hosts.
Physical network isolationWhile iSCSI can be logically isolated from the general network using VLANs only, it is still no different from any other network equipment and may use any cable or port as long as there is a completed signal path between source and target. Just a single cabling mistake by an inexperienced network technician can compromise the barrier of logical separation, and an accidental bridging may not be immediately detected because it does not cause network errors.
In order to further differentiate iSCSI from the regular network and prevent cabling mistakes when changing connections, administrators may implement self-defined color coding and labeling standards, such as only using yellow-colored cables for the iSCSI connections and only blue cables for the regular network, and clearly labeling ports and switches used only for iSCSI.
While iSCSI could be implemented as just a VLAN cluster of ports on a large multi-port switch that is also used for general network usage, the administrator may instead choose to use physically separate switches dedicated to iSCSI VLANs only, to further prevent the possibility of an incorrectly connected cable plugged into the wrong port bridging the logical barrier.
AuthorizationBecause iSCSI aims to consolidate storage for many servers into a single storage array, iSCSI deployments require strategies to prevent unrelated initiators from accessing storage resources. As a pathological example, a single enterprise storage array could hold data for servers variously regulated by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act for corporate accounting, HIPAA for health benefits information, and PCI DSS for credit card processing. During an audit, storage systems must demonstrate controls to ensure that a server under one regime cannot access the storage assets of a server under another.
Typically, iSCSI storage arrays explicitly map initiators to specific target LUNs; an initiator authenticates not to the storage array, but to the specific storage asset it intends to use. However, because the target LUNs for SCSI commands are expressed both in the iSCSI negotiation protocol and in the underlying SCSI protocol, care must be taken to ensure that access control is provided consistently.
Confidentiality and integrity This section needs additional citations for verification.Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)
For the most part, iSCSI operates as a cleartext protocol that provides no cryptographic protection for data in motion during SCSI transactions. As a result, an attacker who can listen in on iSCSI Ethernet traffic can:
reconstruct and copy the files and filesystems being transferred on the wire alter the contents of files by injecting fake iSCSI frames corrupt filesystems being accessed by initiators, exposing servers to software flaws in poorly-tested filesystem code. These problems do not occur only with iSCSI, but rather apply to any IP-based SAN protocol without cryptographic security. Adoption and deployment of IPsec, frequently cited as a solution to the IP SAN security problem, has been hampered by performance and compatibility issues.[citation needed]
Industry support[edit] Operating-system supportThe dates that appear in the following table might be misleading. It is known for example that IBM delivered an iSCSI storage device (NAS200i) in 2001 for use with Windows NT, Windows 2000 [1] and Linux [2]
OS First release date Version Features i5/OS 2006-10 i5/OS V5R4M0 Target, Multipath VMware ESX 2006-06 ESX 3.5.0, ESX 4.0 Initiator, Multipath AIX 2002-10 AIX 5.3 TL10 , AIX 6.1 TL3 Target, Initiator Windows 2003-06 2000, XP Pro, 2003, Vista, 2008, 2008 R2, 7 Initiator, Target†, Multipath NetWare 2003-08 NetWare 5.1, 6.5, & OES Initiator, Target HP-UX 2003-10 HP 11i v1, HP 11i v2, HP 11i v3 Initiator Solaris 2005-02 Solaris 10, OpenSolaris Initiator, Target, Multipath, iSER Linux 2005-06 2.6.12 Initiator, Target, Multipath, iSER NetBSD 2006-02 4.0, 5.0 Initiator (5.0), Target (4.0) FreeBSD 2008-02 7.0 Initiator, Target from NetBSD OpenVMS 2008-02 8.3-1H1 Initiator, Multipath Mac OS X 2008-07 10.4 - 10.6 Initiator [3]
†Target available only as part of Windows Unified Data Storage Server (WUDSS)
TargetsMost iSCSI targets involve disk, though iSCSI tape and medium-changer targets are popular as well. So far, physical devices have not featured native iSCSI interfaces on a component level. Instead, devices with Parallel SCSI or Fibre Channel interfaces are bridged by using iSCSI target software, external bridges, or controllers internal to the device enclosure.
Alternatively, it is possible to virtualize disk and tape targets. Rather than representing an actual physical device, an emulated virtual device is presented. The underlying implementation can deviate drastically from the presented target as is done with virtual tape library (VTL) products. VTLs use disk storage for storing data written to virtual tapes. As with actual physical devices, virtual targets are presented by using iSCSI target software, external bridges, or controllers internal to the device enclosure.
In the security products industry, some manufacturers use an iSCSI RAID as a target, with the initiator being either an IP-enabled encoder or camera.
Converters and bridgesMultiple systems exist that allow Fibre Channel, SCSI and SAS devices to be attached to an IP network for use via iSCSI. They can be used to allow migration from older storage technologies, access to SANs from remote servers and the linking of SANs over IP networks. An iSCSI gateway bridges IP servers to Fibre Channel SANs. The TCP connection is terminated at the gateway, which is implemented on a Fibre Channel switch or as a standalone appliance.
See alsoATA-over-Ethernet (AoE) Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP) Unified Storage - The Picquelle Report (NAS, SAN and HA) HyperSCSI SCSI over Ethernet frames instead of IP (as iSCSI is) ISCSI Extensions for RDMA (iSER) Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) Internet Storage Name Service (iSNS) Service Location Protocol Comparison of iSCSI targets References^ Architecture and Dependability of Large-Scale Internet Services David Oppenheimer and David A. Patterson, Berkley, IEEE Internet Computing, September–October 2002. ^ Satran, Julian; Kalman, Meth; Sapuntzakis, Costa; Zeidner, Efri; Chadalapaka, Mallikarjun (2004-04-02). "RFC 3720". http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3720#section-8.2.1. [edit] External linksMicrosoft portal on iSCSI Technology Microsoft iSCSI Documentation for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 RFCsRFC 3720 - Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) RFC 3721 - Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) Naming and Discovery RFC 3722 - String Profile for Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) Names RFC 3723 - Securing Block Storage Protocols over IP RFC 3347 - Small Computer Systems Interface protocol over the Internet (iSCSI) Requirements and Design Considerations RFC 3783 - Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) Command Ordering Considerations with iSCSI RFC 3980 - T11 Network Address Authority (NAA) Naming Format for iSCSI Node Names RFC 4018 - Finding Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) Targets and Name Servers by Using Service Location Protocol version 2 (SLPv2) RFC 4173 - Bootstrapping Clients using the Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) Protocol RFC 4544 - Definitions of Managed Objects for Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) RFC 4850 - Declarative Public Extension Key for Internet Small Computer Systems Interface (iSCSI) Node Architecture RFC 4939 - Definitions of Managed Objects for iSNS (Internet Storage Name Service) RFC 5048 - Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) Corrections and Clarifications RFC 5047 - DA: Datamover Architecture for the Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) RFC 5046 - Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI) Extensions for Remote Direct Memory Access (RDMA) [hide]v • d • eComputer bus & interconnection standards (wired) Main articles Front-side bus · Back-side bus · Daisy chain · Control bus · Address bus · Bus contention · Electrical busList of bus bandwidths Computer bus standards (desktop) S-100 bus · MBus · SMBus · Q-Bus · ISA · Zorro II · Zorro III · CAMAC · FASTBUS · LPC · HP Precision Bus · EISA · VME · VXI · NuBus · TURBOchannel · MCA · SBus · VLB · PCI · PXI · HP GSC bus · CoreConnect · InfiniBand · UPA · PCI-X · AGP · PCI Express · Intel QuickPath Interconnect · HyperTransport · more... Computer bus standards (portable) PC Card · ExpressCard Storage bus standards ST-506 · ESDI · SMD · Parallel ATA · DMA · SSA · HIPPI · USB MSC · FireWire (1394) · Serial ATA · eSATA · SCSI · Parallel SCSI · Serial Attached SCSI · Fibre Channel · iSCSI Peripheral bus standards Multidrop bus · Apple Desktop Bus · HIL · MIDI · Multibus · RS-232 (serial port) · DMX512-A · EIA/RS-422 · IEEE-1284 (parallel port) · UNI/O · 1-Wire · I²C · SPI · EIA/RS-485 · Parallel SCSI · USB · FireWire (1394) · Fibre Channel · Camera Link · External PCI Express x16 · Light Peak Vehicle buses LIN · J1708 · J1587 · FMS · J1939 · CAN · VAN · FlexRay · MOST Note: interfaces are listed in speed ascending order (roughly), the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest

Internet standard

In computer network engineering, an Internet Standard (STD) is a normative specification of a technology or methodology applicable to the Internet. Internet Standards are created and published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
OverviewAn Internet Standard is a special Request for Comments (RFC) or set of RFCs. An RFC that is to become a Standard or part of a Standard begins as an Internet Draft, and is later (usually after several revisions) accepted and published by the RFC Editor as a RFC and labeled a Proposed Standard. Later, an RFC is labelled a Draft Standard, and finally a Standard. Collectively, these stages are known as the standards track, and are defined in RFC 2026. The label Historic (sic) is applied to deprecated standards-track documents or obsolete RFCs that were published before the standards track was established.
Only the IETF, represented by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), can approve standards-track RFCs. The definitive list of Internet Standards is maintained in Internet Standards document STD 1: Internet Official Protocol Standards.[1]
Standardization process This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (November 2007)
Becoming a standard is a three step process within the IETF called Proposed Standards, Draft Standards and finally Internet Standards. If an RFC is part of a proposal that is on the standard track, then at the first stage, the standard is proposed and subsequently organizations decide whether to implement this Proposed Standard. After three separate implementations, more review and corrections are made to the RFC, and a Draft Standard is created. At the final stage, the RFC becomes a Standard.
Proposed StandardA Proposed Standard (PS) is generally stable, has resolved known design choices, is believed to be well-understood, has received significant community review, and appears to enjoy enough community interest to be considered valuable. However, further experience might result in a change or even retraction of the specification before it advances. Usually, neither implementation nor operational experience is required.
Draft StandardA specification from which at least two independent and interoperable implementations from different code bases have been developed, and for which sufficient successful operational experience has been obtained, may be elevated to the Draft Standard (DS) level.
A Draft Standard is normally considered to be a final specification, and changes are likely to be made only to solve specific problems encountered. In most circumstances, it is reasonable for vendors to deploy implementations of Draft Standards into a disruption sensitive environment.
StandardA specification for which significant implementation and successful operational experience has been obtained may be elevated to the Internet Standard (STD) level. An Internet Standard, which may simply be referred to as a Standard, is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community.
Generally Internet Standards cover interoperability of systems on the internet through defining protocols, messages formats, schemas, and languages. The most fundamental of the Standards are the ones defining the Internet Protocol.
All Internet Standards are given a number in the STD series - The first document in this series, STD 1, describes the remaining documents in the series, and has a list of Proposed Standards.
Each RFC is static; if the document is changed, it is submitted again and assigned a new RFC number. If an RFC becomes an Internet Standard (STD), it is assigned an STD number but retains its RFC number. When an Internet Standard is updated, its number stays the same and it simply refers to a different RFC or set of RFCs. A given Internet Standard, STD n, may be RFCs x and y at a given time, but later the same standard may be updated to be RFC z instead. For example, in 2007 RFC 3700 was an Internet Standard—STD 1—and in May 2008 it was replaced with RFC 5000, so RFC 3700 changed to Historic status, and now[update] STD 1 is RFC 5000. When STD 1 is updated again, it will simply refer to a newer RFC, but it will still be STD 1. Note that not all RFCs are standards-track documents, but all Internet Standards and other standards-track documents are RFCs.[2]
See alsoStandardization [edit] References^ "Internet Official Protocol Standards (STD 1)" (plain text). RFC Editor. May 2008. ftp://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/std/std1.txt. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ Huitema, C.; Postel, J.; Crocker, S. (April 1995). "Not All RFCs are Standards (RFC 1796)". The Internet Engineering Task Force. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1796. Retrieved 2008-05-25. "[E]ach RFC has a status…: Informational, Experimental, or Standards Track (Proposed Standard, Draft Standard, Internet Standard), or Historic." The Internet Standards Process is defined in a "Best Current Practice" document BCP 9 (currently[update] RFC 2026).

Internet addiction disorder

Internet addiction disorder (IAD), or, more broadly, Internet overuse, problematic computer use or pathological computer use, is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. These terms avoid the distracting and divisive term addiction and are not limited to any single cause.
IAD was originally proposed as a disorder in a satirical hoax by Ivan Goldberg, M.D., in 1995.[1] He took pathological gambling as diagnosed by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as his model for the description[2] of IAD. It is not however included in the current DSM as of 2009. IAD receives coverage in the press, and possible future classification as a psychological disorder continues to be debated and researched.
Usually, an individual is considered an addict when his or her psychological state, which includes both mental and emotional states, as well as his or her scholastic, occupational and social interactions, are impaired by the overuse of whichever medium they are addicted to. [3]
Online activities which, if done in person, would normally be considered troublesome, such as compulsive gambling or shopping, are sometimes called net compulsions.[4] Others, such as reading or playing computer games, are troubling only to the extent that these activities interfere with normal life.
Supporters of disorder classification often divide IAD into subtypes by activity, such as excessive viewing of pornography,[5] overwhelming and excessive gaming,[6] inappropriate involvement in online social networking sites or blogging,[7] and Internet shopping addiction.[8] One counter argument is that compulsive behaviors may not themselves be addictive.[9] Obsessive-compulsive disorder patients sometimes compulsively wash their hands, which does not indicate that hand-washing is addictive.[citation needed]

Possible disorderThere is debate over whether or not to include "Internet Addiction" as a diagnosis in DSM-V, the next (2012) edition of the DSM. Some argue that Internet addiction disorder exists and should be included, and some that it is neither an addiction nor a specific disorder and should not be included in DSM-V.
In June 2007, the American Medical Association declined to recommend to the American Psychiatric Association that they include IAD as a formal diagnosis in DSM-V,[10] and recommended further study of "video game overuse."[11] Some members of the American Society of Addiction Medicine opposed identifying Internet overuse and video game overuse as disorders.[12] Among the research identified as necessary is to find ways to define "overuse" and to differentiate an "Internet addiction" from obsession, self-medication for depression or other disorders, and compulsion.
While the existence of Internet addiction is debated, self-proclaimed sufferers are resorting to the courts for redress. In one American case (Pacenza v. IBM Corp.), the plaintiff argued he was illegally dismissed from his employment in violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act because of Internet addiction triggered by Vietnam War-related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.[13] [14] The case is pending before the court in the Southern District of New York (case summarized in Glaser & Carroll, 2007).
SupportAccording to Maressa Orzack, director of the Computer Addiction Study Center at Harvard University's McLean Hospital, between 5% and 10% of Web surfers suffer some form of Web dependency.[15]
Another supporter, David Greenfield, Ph.D. of the Center for Internet Behavior conducted a study with ABC News.com in 1999 and is author of Virtual Addiction. He believes that some services available over the Internet have unique psychological properties which induce dissociation, time distortion, and instant gratification, with about 6% of individuals experiencing some significant impact on their lives. However, he says it may not best be seen as an addiction but rather as a compulsion. Greenfield claims that sex, gaming, gambling, and shopping online can produce a mood-altering effect.
According to the Center for Internet Addiction Recovery (whose director is Kimberly S. Young, a researcher who has lobbied for the recognition of net abuse as a distinct clinical disorder), "Internet addicts suffer from emotional problems such as depression and anxiety-related disorders and often use the fantasy world of the Internet to psychologically escape unpleasant feelings or stressful situations."[16] Over 60% of people seeking treatment for IAD claim involvement with sexual activities online which they consider inappropriate, such as excessive attention to pornography or involvement in explicit sexual conversations online.[17] More than half are also addicted to alcohol, drugs, tobacco, or sex.[16]
In a 2008 editorial published in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Jerald J. Block, M.D. argues that Internet addiction should be included as a disorder in the DSM-V. He notes that symptoms of IA mirror other compulsive/impulsive disorders, including: 1.) excessive use (often associated with a loss of sense of time); 2.) withdrawal symptoms when access is denied; 3.) increasing tolerance (including growing needs for exposure to obtain the same effects); and, 4.) negative repercussions (including social isolation). He further observed that diagnosis was complicated because 86% of study subjects showing IA symptoms also exhibited other diagnosable mental health disorders.[18]
OppositionIAD suffers first from its misleading title. Psychiatrist Dr. Goldberg acknowledges that Internet addiction disorder is not a true addiction and may in fact be no more than a symptom of other, existing disorders.[19] An overbroad description of addiction leaves open the possibility of every compensatory behavior being declared an addiction. For example, a person who has lengthy telephone conversations with a friend to avoid an unpleasant situation could be declared "addicted to the telephone" with equal validity as a person who chats on the Internet with the same underlying goal.
Most, if not all "Internet addicts", already fall under existing diagnostic labels.[20] For many individuals, overuse or inappropriate use of the Internet is a manifestation of their depression, anxiety, impulse control disorders, or pathological gambling.[21] IAD is compared to food addiction, in which patients overeat as a form of self-medication for depression, anxiety, etc., without actually being truly addicted to eating.
It is possible that a person could have a pathological relationship with a specific aspect of the Internet, such as bidding on online auctions, viewing pornography, online gaming, or online gambling (which is included under the existing Pathological Gambling), but that does not make the Internet medium itself be addictive. For example,[22], whether gambling is done on a computer or face-to-face does not affect whether or not it is pathological; a person with poor impulse control can lose sleep over a suspenseful novel or favorite television show or a computer game or the temptation to click on another web link.
Also, there are significant and critical differences between common Internet activities (e-mail, chatting, web surfing) and pathological gambling, which the IAD notion heavily parallels. The Internet is largely a pro-social, interactive, and information-driven medium, while gambling is seen as a single, anti-social behavior that has very little social redeeming value. So-called Internet addicts do not suffer from the same damage to health and relationships that are common to established addictions.[20]
A complete review of the Internet addiction research at the end of 2008 (Byun et al., 2008) demonstrated significant, multiple flaws in most studies in this area. The researchers wrote in that article, "The analysis showed that previous studies have utilized inconsistent criteria to define Internet addicts, applied recruiting methods that may cause serious sampling bias, and examined data using primarily exploratory rather than confirmatory data analysis techniques to investigate the degree of association rather than causal relationships among variables."[23] This suggests that much of the prior research done on this issue is invalid.[citation needed]
Prevalence of Internet overuseThe prevalence of AID can be attributed to the fact that it has become increasingly difficult to distinguish between the online and offline worlds. The Internet has tremendous potential to effect the emotions of humans and in turn, alter our self-perception and anxiety levels. [24]
25% of users fulfill Internet addiction criteria within the first six months of using the Internet. Many individuals initially report feeling intimidated by the computer but gradually feel a sense of "competency and exhilaration from mastering the technology and learning to navigate the applications quickly by visual stimulation" (Beard 374). The feeling of exhilaration can be explained by the way IAD sufferers often describe themselves as: bold, outgoing, openminded, intellectually prideful, and assertive. [25]
The Ottawa Sun reports that a 1996 report in the UK "Advances in Psychiatric Treatment" claimed that a "significant minority" suffer from "Internet addiction".[26]
Up to 30 percent of South Koreans under 18, or about 2.4 million people, are at risk of Internet addiction, said Ahn Dong-hyun, a child psychiatrist at Hanyang University in Seoul who just completed a three-year government-financed survey of the problem.[27]
Data from China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), as of June 30, 2006, showed that 123 million people had gone online, of which 14.9% were teenagers below 18 years old. Chou and Hsiao reported that the incidence rate of Internet addiction among Taiwan college students was 5.9%.[28] Wu and Zhu[29] identified 10.6% of Chinese college students as Internet addicts.[30]
One Beijing judge, Shan Xiuyun, claimed in 2005 that 85 percent of juvenile crime in the city was Internet-related.[31] The China Communist Youth League claimed in 2007 that over 17 percent of Chinese citizens between 13 and 17 are addicted to the Internet.[32]
A prime example of the damage IAD can have is that of the Straws. Michael and Iana Straw were the parents of two children, a boy who was 22 months old and a girl who was 11months old. The Couple was so addicted to an online game that they neglected their children, choosing to spend all of their efforts online, immersed in the virtual realm. When the children were found they were "severely malnourished and near death." The parents were each charged with two counts of child neglect. Both children were both severely underdeveloped and suffered from multiple physical issues. While child neglect via internet addiction has not been frequently documented, this case shows just how serious the consequences of IAD can be. [33]
Prevention and correctionIn many cases, though not all, Internet overuse corrects itself. Sarah Kershaw wrote for the New York Times in 2005: "It was Professor Kiesler who called Internet addiction a fad illness. In her view, she said, television addiction is worse. She added that she was completing a study of heavy Internet users, which showed the majority had sharply reduced their time on the computer over the course of a year, indicating that even problematic use was self-corrective."[34]
Corrective strategies include content-control software, counseling, and cognitive behavioural therapy.[35][36][37][38]
Families in China have turned to unlicensed training camps that offer to "wean" their children, often in their teens, from overuse of the Internet, resulting in the death of at least one youth.[39]
In August 2009, ReSTART, a residential treatment center for "pathological computer use", opened near Seattle, Washington, United States.[40] It offers a 45-day program intended to help people wean themselves from pathological computer use, and can handle up to six patients at a time.[41]
In November 2009, the government in China banned physical punishment to "wean" teens from the Internet. Electro-shock therapy had already been banned.[42]
See alsoCompulsive gambling Pornography addiction Soft addiction Procrastination Workaholic Online Gamers Anonymous

Internet Information Services (IIS)

Internet Information Services or Internet Information Server is a web HTTP server that is used in the Windows server operating systems, from Windows NT 4.0 Server, Windows 2000 Server or Windows Server 2003. This service is an integrated service in Windows 2000 Server, Windows Server 2003, or as an add-on in Windows NT 4.0. This service serves as a supporting TCP / IP protocol that runs on application layer (application layer). IIS also be the foundation of the Internet and Intranet platforms Microsoft, including Microsoft Site Server, Microsoft Commercial Internet System products and other Microsoft BackOffice. Internet Information Services has evolved since first introduced in Windows NT 3.51 (though less widely used) to IIS version 6.0 included in Windows Server 2003. Version 5.0 is integrated in Windows 2000, while Windows XP Professional has IIS version 5.1. Windows NT 4.0 has a 4:01 version included in the add-on Windows NT Option Pack. In Windows NT 4.0 Workstation or Windows 95/98, IIS can also be installed on the Microsoft Personal Web Server (PWS). Version IIS is available in several versions and operating systems as follows: IIS 1.0 for Windows NT 3.51, which is available as a free extra. IIS 2.0 for Windows NT 4.0 IIS 3.0 for Windows NT 4.0 Service Pack 3 IIS 4.0 for Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack IIS 5.0 for Windows 2000 (Professional and Server) IIS 5.1 for Windows XP Professional and Windows XP Media Center Edition IIS 6.0 for Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition IIS 7.0 for Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista (Business Edition, Enterprise Edition, and Ultimate) IIS 7.5 for Windows Server 2008 R2 (Beta) and Windows 7 (Beta) Feature Integrated with the Windows NT full (security systems, auditing, and NTFS permissions) Fully supports the HTTP protocol version 1.1 Already include FTP protocol Limited support for the SMTP protocol Support for NNTP protocol Support for SSL security protocol Can be used as a platform where a web application running, by using Active Server Pages (ASP), ASP.NET, Internet Server API (ISAPI), Common Gateway Interface (CGI), Microsoft. NET Framework, Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting (VBScript) , JScript, and some scripting language that can be installed like Perl or PHP. Allows web applications to run as an isolated process in a separate memory space to prevent an application to crash another application. Can be arranged in several ways: Microsoft Management Console, via the web browser, or using the Windows Scripting Host script. Bandwidth throttling can prevent a monopoly on web site available bandwidth. History Web server was first created by Microsoft is a research project conducted by an institution called the European Microsoft Windows NT Academic Center (EMWAC), part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and distributed as software not paid. However, because the server could not be scaled EMWAC to menanganii traffic data that led to microsoft.com, Microsoft was finally forced to develop its own Web server, with the name of the IIS. First time Internet Information Services released as an additional set of services based on Internet for Windows NT 3.51. A few moments later, IIS 2.0 was released with added support for Windows NT 4.0 is released at that time; and IIS version 3.0 was released again to support a dynamic scripting environment Active Server Pages (ASP). However, IIS 4.0 is released later, remove the support for the Gopher protocol and is bundled in the CD-ROM Windows NT as a separate section, called the "Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack." The latest version is the version of IIS 7.0 for Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, version 6.0 for Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, and version 5.1 for Windows XP Professional. Unfortunately, IIS 5.1 in Windows XP has a limitation that only supports 10 simultaneous connections, and only one web site alone. IIS version 6.0 offers support for IPv6. FastCGI module is also available for IIS 5.1, IIS 6.0 and IIS 7.0. IIS 7.0 does not directly installed in Vista, but can be chosen from a list of optional components. Actually, IIS 7.0 is in all editions of Windows Vista, including Windows Vista Home Basic. IIS 7.0 in Windows Vista does not have connection limitations like that happens in Windows XP, but only limited demand for simultaneous (concurrent requests) only up to 10 requests (Windows Vista Ultimate Edition, Business Edition and Enterprise Edition) or 3 request (Home Premium). Additional requests will diantrekan way that can reduce performance, but not rejected as well as IIS 5.1 in Windows XP that often issue an error message "Server too Busy". Microsoft Web Platform Installer Microsoft Web Platform Installer is a simple tool that could install the entire Microsoft Web platform applications, including: IIS Visual Web Developer 2008 Express Edition SQL Server 2008 Express Edition Microsoft. NET Framework Silverlight Tools for Visual Studio and other components. Operating systems supported include Windows Vista Release to manufacturing (RTM), Windows Vista Service Pack 1, Windows XP Professional, Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008. Computer architecture supported is x86 and x64. Security Criticism addressed to the early editions of IIS is the number of vulnerability (vulnerability) in it, especially for problems CA-2001-19 later exploited by the Code Red worm. However, versions 6.0 and 7.0 now have no problem with this vulnerability. In IIS 6.0, Microsoft chose to change the behavior of ISAPI handler previously installed, which is suspected to be a source of security problems in version 4.0 and 5.0, thus reducing the potential for attacks against IIS. In addition, IIS 6.0 added a feature called "Web Service Extensions" that prevents IIS to run any programs without the explicit permission of the administrator. In the latest version, version 7.0, any component in the IIS dimodularkan now so that only the required components will be installed by Windows, which can reduce the potential for attacks. In addition, IIS 7.0 also offers security features such as URLFiltering can refuse certain URLs based on rules defined by the user. Normally, IIS 5.1 and earlier versions of Web sites running under the SYSTEM account, a default account in Windows that has super user access rights. This changed in version 6.0, in which all the processes handling requests made by the NETWORK SERVICES account that has rights that far fewer than the SYSTEM so that if there is vulnerability in a feature or made their own code, then it will not make a system crash. IIS 6.0 HTTP stack also offers a new kernel mode HTTP parser which has a more stringent and offers response function cache for static and dynamic content.

Facebook Dominate Mobile The English

Facebook Dominate Mobile The EnglishLONDON - MI: Facebook dominate the mobile Internet activities in the UK, according to the mobile industry.British Society mostly use most of their time online in social networks Facebook through their mobile phone. According to data from the GSM Association (GSMA), every person in the UK spend around 2.2 billion minutes to browse on Facebook in December last. Furthermore, approximately 16 million people in the UK access the Internet from their mobile phone in December 2009.Overall, they opened the 6.7 billion web pages and spent more than $ 4.8 billion (60 million hours) to get online every month. After Facebook, Google was second as the site most visited by 4.57 million visitors.Other sites include 10 sites most visited in the UK including Yahoo, eBay, and Microsoft.So far, Facebook is the largest social networking sites on the Internet with around 350 million users, a Web site just celebrated his sixth birthday which was launched a new homepage design that is more focused on search and chat applications. (Pri/BBCNews/OL-

Computer-generated imagery

Computer-generated imagery[1]is the application of the field of computer graphics or, more specifically, 3D computer graphics to special effects in films, television programs, commercials, simulators and simulation generally, and printed media
CGI is used for visual effects because computer generated effects are more controllable than other more physically based processes, such as constructing miniatures for effects shots or hiring extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other technology. It can also allow a single graphic artist to produce such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces, or props.
3D computer graphics software is used to make computer-generated imagery for movies, etc. Recent availability of CGI software and increased computer speeds have allowed individual artists and small companies to produce professional grade films, games, and fine art from their home computers. This has brought about an Internet subculture with its own set of global celebrities, clichés, and technical vocabulary.
Simulators, particularly flight simulators, and simulation generally, make extensive use of CGI techniques for representing the outside world.[2]
HistoryMain article: Timeline of CGI in film and televisionCGI was first used in movies in 1973's Westworld a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans, though the first use of 3D Wireframe imagery was in its sequel, Futureworld (1976), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then University of Utah graduate students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. The third movie to use this technology was Star Wars (1977) for the scenes with the wireframe Death Star plans and the targeting computers in the X-wings and the Millennium Falcon. The Black Hole (1979) used raster wire-frame model rendering to depict a black hole. The science fiction-horror film Alien of that same year also used a raster wire-frame model, in this case to render the image of navigation monitors in the sequence where a spaceship follows a beacon to a land on an unfamiliar planet.
In 1978, graduate students at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab began work on what would have been the first full-length CGI film, The Works, and a trailer for it was shown at SIGGRAPH 1982, but the film was never completed. Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan premiered a short CGI sequence called The Genesis Wave in June 1982. The first two films to make heavy investments in Solid 3D CGI, Tron (1982) and The Last Starfighter (1984), were commercial failures, causing most directors to relegate CGI to images that were supposed to look like they were created by a computer.
It was the 1993 film Jurassic Park, however, in which dinosaurs created with CGI were seamlessly integrated into live action scenes, that revolutionized the movie industry. It marked Hollywood’s transition from stop-motion animation and conventional optical effects to digital techniques. The following year, CGI was used to create the special effects for Forrest Gump. The most noteworthy effects shots were those that featured the digital removal of actor Gary Sinise's legs. Other effects included a napalm strike, the fast-moving Ping-Pong balls, and the digital insertion of Tom Hanks into several scenes of historical footage.
Two-dimensional CGI increasingly appeared in traditionally animated films, where it supplemented the use of hand-illustrated cels. Its uses ranged from digital tweening motion between frames, to eye-catching quasi-3D effects, such as the ballroom scene in Beauty and the Beast. In 1993, Babylon 5 became the first television series to use CGI as the primary method for its visual effects (rather than using hand-built models). It also marked the first TV use of virtual sets. That same year, Insektors became the first full-length completely computer animated TV series[3]. Soon after, in 1994, the hit Canadian CGI show ReBoot aired.
Toy Story (1995) was the first fully computer-generated feature film.In 1995, the first fully computer-generated feature film, Disney-Pixar's Toy Story, was a resounding commercial success. Additional digital animation studios such as Blue Sky Studios (20th Century Fox), DNA Productions (Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros.), Omation Studios (Paramount Pictures), Sony Pictures Animation (Columbia Pictures), Vanguard Animation (Walt Disney Pictures, Lions Gate Entertainment and 20th Century Fox), Big Idea Productions (Universal Pictures and FHE Pictures), Animal Logic (Warner Bros.) and Pacific Data Images (Dreamworks SKG) went into production, and existing animation companies, such as The Walt Disney Company, began to make a transition from traditional animation to CGI. Between 1995 and 2005 the average effects budget for a wide-release feature film skyrocketed from $5 million to $40 million. According to one studio executive, as of 2005[update], more than half of feature films have significant effects. However, CGI has made up for the expenditures by grossing over 20% more than their real-life counterparts.[4]
In the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery became the dominant form of special effects. The technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles. Camera tracking software was refined to allow increasingly complex visual effects developments that were previously impossible. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes with advanced flocking and crowd simulation software. The timeline of CGI in film and television shows a detailed list of pioneering uses of computer-generated imagery in film and television.
CGI for films is usually rendered at about 1.4–6 megapixels.[citation needed] Toy Story, for example, was rendered at 1536 × 922 (1.42MP). The time to render one frame is typically around 2–3 hours, with ten times that for the most complex scenes. This time hasn't changed much in the last decade, as image quality has progressed at the same rate as improvements in hardware, since with faster machines, more and more complexity becomes feasible. Exponential increases in GPUs processing power, as well as massive increases in parallel CPU power, storage and memory speed and size have greatly increased CGI's potential.
In 2001, Square Pictures created the CGI film Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, which made headlines for attempting to create photo-realistic human actors. The film was not a box-office success. Some commentators have suggested this may be partly because the lead CGI characters had facial features which fell into the uncanny valley. Square Pictures produced only two more films using a similar visual style Final Flight of the Osiris, a short film which served as a prologue to The Matrix Reloaded and Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children, based on their extremely popular video game series.
Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, attended each year by tens of thousands of computer professionals. Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies. This art form is called machinima.
Creating characters and objects on a computer3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed movement. Models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. A bone/joint system is set up to deform the 3D mesh (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process called rigging, the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture, or keyframing by a human animator, or a combination of the two.
3D models rigged for animation may contain hundreds of control points - for example, the character "Woody" in Pixar's movie Toy Story, uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe which had about 1851 controllers, 742 in just the face alone. In the 2004 film The Day After Tomorrow, designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of King Kong, actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model "human" characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings trilogy.
CommunitiesThere are a multitude of websites designed to help promote and support CGI artists. Some are managed by software developers and content providers, but there are standalone sites as well, including one of the largest communities on the web, Renderosity. These communities allow for members to seek advice, post tutorials, provide product reviews or post examples of their own work.
Film studiosBlue Sky Studios DreamWorks Animation Pacific Data Images Pixar Walt Disney Animation Studios Sony Pictures Animation Sony Pictures Imageworks Visual effects studiosSpeedshape Digital Domain Industrial Light & Magic Modus FX Rainmaker Digital Effects Rhythm and Hues Studios Weta Digital Framestore The Mill See alsoComputer Graphics Ray tracing—one of many algorithms used to create (primarily) offline-rendered CGI frames Timeline of CGI in film and television Virtual human—computer-generated images and voices of human beings The Works—would have been the first entirely 3D computer animated film, but it was never completed References^ Many prefer the term CG for computer graphics instead of CGI for computer generated imagery. Computer imagery has really come to life in the past couple of years, and, is in common use for more and more films and video games. CGI is also known to stand for the Common Gateway Interface and is associated with script programming languages, such as perl. CGI was thus associated before it was associated with computer graphics, in the 1990s ^ Companies making the highest levels of flight simulators such as the so-called 'Level D' (the highest technical level for civil aircraft training and recognised on both sides of the Atlantic) normally produce their own CGI system for use in their simulators. Other simulator companies buy in a CGI system from a specialist supplier. Companies making Level D flight simulators include CAE (Canada, Germany and USA), FSI (USA), Link division of L-3 Communications, Lockheed Martin (Orlando), Rockwell Collins (USA) and Thales (France and UK) ^ Created in 1993. 2nd Prize for the category 3D Animation Imagina in 1993 for the episode "Some Flowers for Bakrakra" [1] ^ Wired.com: F/X Gods